Stories from the ground

Posting of third-country nationals in the EU

⸺ ELA STUDY ⸺

Between borders, between rights: stories of migrant workers in Europe

Every day, workers from outside the EU keep Europe moving. Many are 'posted' - hired in one EU country and sent to work in another. This page shares what that looks like in real life and what can be done to protect fair work.

" The case studies confirm there is a need for more action to support the working conditions of posted third-country workers in the EU."

Cosmin Bolangiu, ELA Executive Director

Why this study?

Third-country nationals (TCNs) are a growing part of Europe's labour market. Many are temporarily posted to another EU country to fill shortages in sectors like construction, transport and care.

On 20 March 2025, ELA published a study based on in-depth interviews with workers and authorities. It looks at recruitment, contractual arrangements and real working conditions for TCNs originating from Ukraine, Brazil, Bosnia and Herzegovina, entering the EU via Poland, Portugal and Slovenia and posted to other Member States.

⸺ THE JOURNEY ⸺

People, chains, choices

For many workers from outside the EU, posting is not the start of their story — it is just one step on a much longer road.

Chapter 01

First steps:
from home to
entry country

Chapter 02

In the chain:
brokers, agencies
and long hours

Chapter 03

Where it breaks down - and how to fix it

Chapter 01

First steps:
from home to
entry country

It often begins with a message or a call. A friend shares a lead, a recruiter posts an ad, or a neighbour puts someone in touch with a broker. That is how Ukrainians arrive in Poland, Brazilians in Portugal, or Bosnians in Slovenia. Few of them started their current employment immediately after arrival. Most spend time in the ‘entry’ country first, working, waiting for papers, learning the ropes, and looking for a better contract.

I was in Ukraine with my family when a colleague from Warsaw called. The employer arranged everything. A few weeks later, I came to Poland.
Construction worker, Poland

Employment contracts that include posting assignments are rarely straightforward. Dedicated posting agreements exist mainly in Portugal; elsewhere, terms are vague or missing. And behind every step lies the same question: will the visa and permit hold up in the next country?

Unfortunately, I paid for the first visa. The first company I worked for took EUR 600 for the visa, but we know that the visa cost about EUR 100-200. I wasn't the only one to pay, several colleagues did (I know, at least 10 of them who did). They took these EUR 600 from our pay.
Construction worker, Slovenia

Chapter 02

In the chain:
brokers, agencies and long hours

Once in Europe, workers discover how many middle players stand between them and the job. A Portuguese firm with a Turkish owner and Italian manager. A Slovenian "branch" set up just to post drivers to Italy. A phone number instead of an office.

I only contacted the company by phone, no real location.
Care worker, Poland

These layers blur who is really responsible. A worker may be hired in one country, paid in another, and housed in a third. Wages are sometimes late or incomplete. Accommodation shifts from flat to flat. In transport and care, constant moves make it hard to keep records or claim rights.

We worked even on Sundays… up to 290 hours. If we refused, they cut our pay.
Construction worker, Slovenia

Chapter 03

Where it breaks down
- and how to fix it

Inspectors see the same problems from the other side. They knock on doors that open onto empty rooms, or mailbox companies with no staff. They face legal limits that stop them interviewing workers posted abroad. And they struggle with scarce staff and cross-border rules that don't line up.

The companies that give problems are the ones that do not really exist… We don't have a person to contact. We go to the address, and it's like, sometimes it's actually a mailbox.
Labour inspector, Portugal

Posted third-country workers can find themselves in fragile position but many hesitate to report abuses because their right to stay can depend on their employer and having a job is better than facing unemployment.

But the journey also shows what can make a difference: clear information in workers' own languages, simpler cross-border tools for inspectors, and shared responsibility along the chain. For people who keep Europe moving — in construction, transport and care — the road to fair work should not be a maze of uncertainty, but a path they can walk with dignity.

Key findings

Posting is part of a longer journey

Many workers work for some time in the EU entry country before being sent abroad, with uncertainty about visas and permits all along their work trajectory.

Posting is only one aspect of third-country nationals’ (TCN) experience on the EU labour market. It should be seen in the broader context of their entry pathways, work situation in the sending country, residence preferences, intermediaries involved, and working conditions during posting.

Common challenges across sectors

Unclear contracts, underpayment, long hours and housing issues — with extra risks linked to migration status.

Challenges related to posting include underpayment, disputes over working time and leave, issues with accommodation. For posted TCNs, visa and permit uncertainty—both in the entry and host Member States—is a specific concern.

Enforcement needs more than cooperation

Inspectors experience challenges with effective national and cross-border cooperation and limited mandates. They also face difficulties when tackling non-genuine posting and letterbox companies.

Effective enforcement requires efficient cross-border cooperation. TCN posted workers are particularly vulnerable as they face barriers in accessing information and they are less likely to report problems to authorities. Addressing gaps in knowledge, financial, and human resources is key to protecting their rights.

Relevant routes across Europe

Relevant routes across Europe

Posting routes include Ukrainian nationals posted from Poland to work in Belgium or the Netherlands.

Relevant routes across Europe

While posting of Bosnian and Herzegovinian workers can take place via Slovenia to Austria or Belgium.

Relevant routes across Europe

Brazilians are frequently posted from Portugal to work in Belgium or France.

Where they work

Posting of TCNs is most common in construction and road transport, where cross-border subcontracting and labour shortages drive demand.

Poland is one of the leading countries from which workers are posted, with Portugal and Slovenia, although smaller in scale, also representing important sending countries.

(Sources: ELA study; EC DG EMPL PDT report, 2025)

Poland ■, Slovenia ■ and Portugal ■
2018 - 2023

 (Source: EC DG EMPL A1 report, 2025)

A growing phenomenon

On average, every fifth posted worker in the EU comes from outside the Union— a share that keeps rising. In 2023, in Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Bulgaria and Italy more than 20% of received posted workers were TCNs.

Member States with High TCN Concentration

Member States where more than one out of five posted workers received were TCNs in 2023.

(Sources: ELA study; *EC DG EMPL PDT report, 2025)

BELGIUM

25.1%* of all posted workers are TCNs.

THE NETHERLANDS

24.1%* of all posted workers are TCNs.

ITALY

20.7%* of all posted workers are TCNs.

FRANCE

24.5%* of all posted workers are TCNs.

BULGARIA

23.9%* of all posted workers are TCNs.

Why this matters

This isn't just about forms and stamps. It's about people. Posted workers fill essential jobs in Europe — and they deserve clarity, fair pay and decent conditions. Stronger cooperation between countries and clearer rules help protect workers and ensure fair competition for companies.

⸺ RESOURCES ⸺

Read the full study

Learn more

To truly understand the realities behind the posting of third-country nationals in the EU, it is essential to look beyond statistics and into the lived experiences of workers and the complex chains that shape their journeys.

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